Radio Navigation
Radio navigation articles
Articles covering Radio Navigation: VOR and NDB tracking, hold entries, intercepts, position fixing, and instrument reading. Every article cites primary ICAO and FAA sources, and links to the relevant trainer in the simulator so you can practise immediately.
Holding
Entry types, timing, wind corrections. See all holding articles →
How to Determine Hold EntryDirect, parallel, or offset? Use the HSI or DI to pick the correct hold entry. Worked examples, ICAO & FAA references, and a dedicated in-browser trainer.How to Fly the Parallel Hold EntryThe Sector 1 entry step by step: the first turn onto the outbound heading on the non-holding side, how long to fly it, and the intercept back inbound.How to Fly the Offset Hold EntryThe 30° offset (Sector 2) hold entry, also called the teardrop. Geometry, the "gate" QDR, how to fly it. Cited from ICAO Doc 8168 and FAA AIM 5-3-8.How to Fly the Direct Hold EntryThe direct (Sector 3) hold entry: when it applies, how to fly it, and how to handle extreme entries near the sector boundary. ICAO and FAA sourced.
Holding Pattern Timing and Leg LengthComing soon
Wind Correction in the HoldSingle drift inbound, triple drift outbound, and timing adjustments to regain the inbound track before the fix. Two worked examples.How to Fly the Hold Inbound TurnComing soon
How to Use the Gate in the HoldThe gate is a QDR 30° off the inbound, marking where a light aircraft ends the outbound leg. Use it to catch tight or wide spacing before the inbound turn.Radio navigation tracking
VOR radials, NDB bearings, intercepts, and the instruments (HSI, CDI, RMI, ADF) you read them with. See all radio navigation tracking articles →
How to Track a VOR RadialTune, identify, set the OBS, and track a VOR radial inbound or outbound with wind correction. The radial-vs-course trap, TO/FROM sense, worked example.How to Intercept a VOR RadialVOR intercepts step by step: set the course, pick an intercept heading, wind-correct it, and judge the roll-out from closure rate. With a worked example.
How to Calculate a Wind Corrected HeadingComing soon
How to Track to and from an NDBComing soon
How to Read an HSI (Horizontal Situation Indicator)Coming soon
Procedures
Position fixing, procedure turns, DME arcs, and other procedures used in instrument flying. See all procedures articles →
How to Take a VOR/DME Position FixComing soon
How to Take a Running Fix (Single Bearing Fix)Coming soon
Why DME Shows Slant Range, Not Ground DistanceComing soon
How to Fly a Procedure TurnComing soon
Approach Classifications: 2D, 3D, Type A and Type BType A means a minimum at or above 250 ft; Type B is below it, split into CAT I, II and III. How that maps to 2D and 3D, and where LPV sits.General tips
Short, focused articles on common mistakes, exam gotchas, and the best techniques. See all general tips articles →
How to Determine Hold Entry from the HSIComing soon
The Clock-Code Mental Shortcut for Drift and GroundspeedComing soon
Wind-Correct a Heading Using the HSIWind-correct a heading in the air by reading drift straight off the HSI. A fast VFR and IFR technique for any aircraft with a direction indicator.How to Calculate Groundspeed from the HSI or DIEstimate groundspeed in flight from drift angle and indicated airspeed using only the HSI or directional gyro. Worked example, no whiz wheel needed.RNAV Substitution on the IR Skills TestWhen GNSS may replace VOR, NDB and DME on the UK CAA IR skills test, and the limits that apply to the hold, the approach and the final approach segment.Correcting an Overshoot on the Hold Inbound TurnComing soon
NDB Holding: Flying the Inbound Turn (with Dip)Coming soon
Extreme Direct Hold EntriesComing soon
The Direct Entry Sector on Instrument ApproachesComing soon
How to Fly a Direct Departure on a Heading and StopwatchComing soon
IFR flight planning
Flight planning under the instrument flight rules: route and altitude selection, alternates, fuel, and the weather minima that govern departure, destination, and alternate planning. See all ifr flight planning articles →
UK CAA IFR Flight PlanningWhen an IFR flight needs a destination alternate, what weather it has to be forecasting, and the Part-NCO and Part-CAT planning minima that decide both.UK IFR Weather Decision and BriefingThe go/no-go call for a UK IFR flight: take-off minima and alternate, destination minima, how many alternates, en-route threats. Part-NCO and Part-CAT.
Glossary
Short definitions of the radio navigation terms that cause the most confusion, each linked to the article that covers the technique. See all glossary articles →
Radial vs courseA radial is always measured outbound from a VOR. A course is the track you select on the OBS. They differ by 180 degrees whenever you track inbound.QDM and QDRQDM is the magnetic bearing TO a station; QDR is the magnetic bearing FROM it. They are reciprocals, and the Q-codes survive in IFR training language.TO/FROM flagThe TO/FROM flag reports which side of the VOR your selected course would take you, not which way you are flying. It is a sense check, not a direction.Cone of confusionThe cone of confusion is the region above a VOR where no usable azimuth signal exists, so the needle wanders and the flag drops until you pass the station.Slant rangeDME measures the straight-line distance to the beacon, not the distance over the ground, so the reading is always slightly high and worst overhead.HSI, CDI and RMIA CDI shows displacement from a selected course, an RMI points at the station, and an HSI combines a heading card with a CDI in one instrument.Drift angleDrift angle is the difference between the heading you are pointing and the track you are making good. It is what the wind does to you, measured in degrees.Relative bearingRelative bearing is the angle from the nose to the station, measured clockwise. Add it to magnetic heading to get the magnetic bearing to the beacon.Holding patternA predetermined manoeuvre keeping an aircraft in specified airspace awaiting clearance. The four elements that define one, plus ICAO timing and bank rules.
Try the simulator
All articles reference the Radio Navigator simulator. The free version covers VOR and HSI basics in your browser, no signup. Pro adds dedicated trainers with real-time grading and more instruments and navigation aids.
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